Philip Stier

Abstract:

Changes in global-mean precipitation are strongly constrained by global radiative cooling, while regional rainfall changes are less constrained because energy can be transported. Absorbing and non-absorbing aerosols have different effects on both global-mean and regional precipitation, due to the distinct effects on energetics. This study analyses the precipitation responses to large perturbations in black carbon (BC) and sulfate (SUL) by examining the changes in atmospheric energy budget terms on global and regional scales, in terms of fast (independent of changes in sea surface temperature, SST) and slow responses (mediated by changes in SST). Changes in atmospheric radiative cooling/heating are further decomposed into contributions from clouds, aerosols, and clear–clean sky (without clouds or aerosols). Both cases show a decrease in global-mean precipitation, which is dominated by fast responses in the BC case and slow responses in the SUL case. The geographical patterns are distinct too. The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), accompanied by tropical rainfall, shifts northward in the BC case, while it shifts southward in the SUL case. For both cases, energy transport terms from the slow response dominate the changes in tropical rainfall, which are associated with the northward (southward) shift of the Hadley cell in response to the enhanced southward (northward) cross-equatorial energy flux caused by increased BC (SUL) emission. The extra-tropical precipitation decreases in both cases. For the BC case, fast responses to increased atmospheric radiative heating contribute most to the reduced rainfall, in which absorbing aerosols directly heat the mid-troposphere, stabilise the column, and suppress precipitation. Unlike BC, non-absorbing aerosols decrease surface temperatures through slow processes, cool the whole atmospheric column, and reduce specific humidity, which leads to decreased radiative cooling from the clear–clean sky, which is consistent with the reduced rainfall. Examining the changes in large-scale circulation and local thermodynamics qualitatively explains the responses of precipitation to aerosol perturbations, whereas the energetic perspective provides a method to quantify their contributions.

Abstract:

Absorbing aerosol from biomass burning impacts the hydrological cycle and radiation fluxes both directly and indirectly via modifications to convective processes and cloud development. Using the ICON model in a regional configuration with 1500 m convection-permitting resolution, we isolate the response of the Amazonian atmosphere to biomass burning smoke via enhanced cloud droplet number concentrations Nd (aerosol-cloud-interactions; ACI) and changes to radiative fluxes (aerosol-radiation-interactions; ARI) over a period of 8 days. We decompose ARI into contributions from reduced shortwave radiation and localized heating of the smoke. We show ARI influences the formation and development of convective cells: surface cooling below the smoke drives suppression of convection that increases with smoke optical depth, whilst the elevated heating promotes initial suppression and subsequent intensification of convection overnight; a corresponding diurnal response (repeating temporal response day-after-day) from high precipitation rates is shown. Enhanced Nd (ACI) perturbs the bulk cloud properties and suppresses low-to-moderate precipitation rates. Both ACI and ARI result in enhanced high-altitude ice clouds that have a strong positive longwave radiative effect. Changes to low-cloud coverage (ARI) and albedo (ACI) drive an overall negative shortwave radiative effect, that slowly increases in magnitude due to a moistening of the boundary layer. The overall net radiative effect is dominated by the enhanced high-altitude clouds, and is sensitive to the plume longevity. The considerable diurnal responses that we simulate cannot be observed by polar orbiting satellites widely used in previous work, highlighting the potential of geostationary satellites to observe large-scale impacts of aerosols on clouds.

Abstract:

Global measurements of absorbing aerosol optical depth (AAOD) are scarce and mostly provided by the ground network AERONET (AErosol RObotic NETwork). In recent years, several satellite products of AAOD have been developed. This study's primary aim is to establish the usefulness of these datasets for AEROCOM (Aerosol Comparisons between Observations and Models) model evaluation with a focus on the years 2006, 2008 and 2010. The satellite products are super-observations consisting of  min aggregated retrievals.

This study consists of two papers, the current one that deals with the assessment of satellite observations and a second paper (Schutgens et al., 2021) that deals with the evaluation of models using those satellite data. In particular, the current paper details an evaluation with AERONET observations from the sparse AERONET network as well as a global intercomparison of satellite datasets, with a focus on how minimum AOD (aerosol optical depth) thresholds and temporal averaging may improve agreement between satellite observations.

All satellite datasets are shown to have reasonable skill for AAOD (three out of four datasets show correlations with AERONET in excess of 0.6) but less skill for SSA (single-scattering albedo; only one out of four datasets shows correlations with AERONET in excess of 0.6). In comparison, satellite AOD shows correlations from 0.72 to 0.88 against the same AERONET dataset. However, we show that performance vs. AERONET and inter-satellite agreements for SSA improve significantly at higher AOD. Temporal averaging also improves agreements between satellite datasets. Nevertheless multi-annual averages still show systematic differences, even at high AOD. In particular, we show that two POLDER (Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances) products appear to have a systematic SSA difference over land of ∼0.04, independent of AOD. Identifying the cause of this bias offers the possibility of substantially improving current datasets.

We also provide evidence that suggests that evaluation with AERONET observations leads to an underestimate of true biases in satellite SSA.

In the second part of this study we show that, notwithstanding these biases in satellite AAOD and SSA, the datasets allow meaningful evaluation of AEROCOM models.

Abstract:

By interacting with radiation, aerosols perturb the Earth’s energy budget and thus the global precipitation amount. It was previously shown that aerosol-radiation interactions lead to a reduction in the global-mean precipitation amount. We have further demonstrated in aqua-planet simulations that the local response to absorbing aerosols differs between the tropics and the extra-tropics. In this study we incorporate an energy budget perspective to further examine the latitudinal-dependence of the effect of aerosol-radiation interaction on precipitation in idealized global simulations. We demonstrate that the transition between a positive local precipitation response in the tropics and a negative local precipitation response in the extra-tropics occurs at relatively low latitudes (∼10°), indicating a transition between the deep-tropics (in which the Coriolis force is low, hence direct thermally driven circulation, and associated divergence/convergence of energy/moisture, can form as a result of the diabatic-heating) and their surroundings. In addition, we gradually increase the level of complexity of the simulations and demonstrate that, in the case of absorbing aerosols, the effect of land is to counteract some of the response both inside and outside the deep-tropics due to the reduction in surface latent-heat flux that opposes the diabatic-heating. The effect of scattering aerosols is also examined and demonstrates a decrease in precipitation over land in both the tropics and extra-tropics and no effect over the ocean. Finally, we examine these results in a more realistic set-up and demonstrate that, although the physical mechanisms still operate, they are not significant enough to be discerned from the model’s natural-variability.

Abstract:

This study presents results from a model intercomparison project, focusing on the range of responses in deep convective cloud updrafts to varying cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations among seven state-of-the-art cloud-resolving models. Simulations of scattered convective clouds near Houston, Texas, are conducted, after being initialized with both relatively low and high CCN concentrations. Deep convective updrafts are identified, and trends in the updraft intensity and frequency are assessed. The factors contributing to the vertical velocity tendencies are examined to identify the physical processes associated with the CCN-induced updraft changes. The models show several consistent trends. In general, the changes between the High-CCN and Low-CCN simulations in updraft magnitudes throughout the depth of the troposphere are within 15% for all of the models. All models produce stronger (~+5%–15%) mean updrafts from ~4–7 km above ground level (AGL) in the High-CCN simulations, followed by a waning response up to ~8 km AGL in most of the models. Thermal buoyancy was more sensitive than condensate loading to varying CCN concentrations in most of the models and more impactful in the mean updraft responses. However, there are also differences between the models. The change in the amount of deep convective updrafts varies significantly. Furthermore, approximately half the models demonstrate neutral-to-weaker (~−5% to 0%) updrafts above ~8 km AGL, while the other models show stronger (~+10%) updrafts in the High-CCN simulations. The combination of the CCN-induced impacts on the buoyancy and vertical perturbation pressure gradient terms better explains these middle- and upper-tropospheric updraft trends than the buoyancy terms alone.