Planetary surfaces

Abstract:

Enceladus possesses a subsurface ocean beneath a conductive ice shell. Based on shell thickness models, the estimated total conductive heat loss from Enceladus is 25-40 GW; the measured heat output from the South Polar Terrain (SPT) is 4-19 GW. The present-day SPT heat flux is of order 100 mWm-2, comparable to estimated paleo-heat fluxes for other regions of Enceladus. These regions have nominal ages of about 2 Ga, but the estimates are uncertain because the impactor flux in the Saturnian system may not resemble that elsewhere. Enceladus's measured rate of orbital expansion implies a low dissipation factor Qp for Saturn, with Qp≈3×103 (neglecting the role of Dione). This value implies that Enceladus's present-day equilibrium tidal heat production (roughly 50 GW, but with large uncertainties) is in approximate balance with its heat loss. If Qp is constant, Enceladus cannot be older than 1.5 Gyr (because otherwise it would have migrated more than is permissible). However, Saturn's dissipation may be better described by the "resonance-locking" theory, in which case Enceladus's orbit may have only evolved outwards by about 35% over the age of the Solar System. In the constant-Qp scenario, any ancient tidal heating events would have been too energetic to be consistent with the observations. Because resonance-locking makes capture into earlier mean-motion orbital resonances less likely, the inferred ancient heating episodes probably took place when the current orbital resonance was already established. In the resonance-locking scenario, tidal heating did not change significantly over time, allowing for a long-lived ocean and a relatively stable ice shell. If so, Enceladus is an attractive target for future exploration from a habitability standpoint.

Abstract:

On Mars, condensation is the major factor constraining the vertical distribution of water vapor. Recent measurements of water and temperature profiles showed that water can be strongly supersaturated at and above the level where clouds form during the aphelion and perihelion seasons. Since 2018, the near-infrared spectrometer (NIR) of the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite onboard the Trace Gas Orbiter has measured H2O and temperature profiles using solar occultation in the infrared from below 10 to 100 km of altitude. Here, we provide the first long-term monitoring of the water saturation state. The survey spans 2 Martian years from Ls = 163° of MY34 to Ls = 170° of MY36. We found that water is often supersaturated above aerosol layers. In the aphelion season, the water mixing ratio above 40 km in the mid-to-high latitudes was below 3 ppmv and yet is found to be supersaturated. Around the perihelion, water is also supersaturated above 60 km with a mixing ratio of 30–50 ppmv. Stronger saturation is observed during the dusty season in MY35 compared to what was observed in MY34 during the Global Dust Storm and around the perihelion. Saturation varied between the evening and morning terminators in response to temperature modulation imparted by thermal tides. Although water vapor is more abundant in the evening, colder morning temperatures induce a daily peak of saturation. This data set establishes a new paradigm for water vapor on Mars, revealing that supersaturation is nearly ubiquitous, particularly during the dust season, thereby promoting water escape on an annual average.