Planetary atmosphere observation analysis

Abstract:

To understand the evolving martian water cycle, a global perspective of the combined vertical and horizontal distribution of water is needed in relation to supersaturation and water loss and how it varies spatially and temporally. The global vertical water vapor distribution is investigated through an analysis that unifies water, temperature and dust retrievals from several instruments on multiple spacecraft throughout Mars Year (MY) 34 with a global circulation model. During the dusty season of MY 34, northern polar latitudes are largely absent of water vapor below 20 km with variations above this altitude due to transport from mid-latitudes during a global dust storm, the downwelling branch of circulation during perihelion season and the intense MY 34 southern summer regional dust storm. Evidence is found of supersaturated water vapor breaking into the northern winter polar vortex. Supersaturation above around 60 km is found for most of the time period, with lower altitudes showing more diurnal variation in the saturation state of the atmosphere. Discrete layers of supersaturated water are found across all latitudes. The global dust storm and southern summer regional dust storm forced water vapor at all latitudes in a supersaturated state to 60-90 km where it is more likely to escape from the atmosphere. The reanalysis data set provides a constrained global perspective of the water cycle in which to investigate the horizontal and vertical transport of water throughout the atmosphere, of critical importance to understand how water is exchanged between different reservoirs and escapes the atmosphere.

Abstract:

Temperature and density in the upper Martian atmosphere, above ∼100 km, are key diagnostic parameters to study processes of the species' escape, investigate the impact of solar activity, model the atmospheric circulation, and plan spacecraft descent or aerobraking maneuvers. In this paper, we report vertical profiling of carbon dioxide (CO2) density and temperature from the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) solar occultations onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. A strong CO2 absorption band near 2.7 μm observed by the middle infrared spectrometric channel (ACS MIR) allows the retrieval of the atmospheric thermal structure in an unprecedentedly large altitude range, from 20 to 180 km. We present the latitudinal and seasonal climatology of the thermal structure for 1.5 Martian years (MYs), from the middle of MY 34 to the end of MY 35. The results show the variability of distinct atmospheric layers, such as a mesopause (derived from 70 to 145 km) and homopause, changing from 90 to 100 km at aphelion to 120–130 km at perihelion. Some short-term homopause fluctuations are also observed depending on the dust activity.

Abstract:

Carbon monoxide is a non-condensable gas in the Martian atmosphere produced by the photolysis of CO2. Its abundance responds to the condensation and sublimation of CO2 from the polar caps, resulting in seasonal variations of the CO mixing ratio. ACS onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter have measured CO in infrared bands by solar occultation. Here we provide the first long-term monitoring of the CO vertical distribution at the altitude range from 0 to 80 km for 1.5 Martian years from Ls = 163° of MY34 to the end of MY35. We obtained a mean CO mixing ratio of ∼960 ppmv at latitudes from 45°S to 45°N and altitudes below 40 km, mostly consistent with previous observations. We found a strong enrichment of CO near the surface at Ls = 100–200° in high southern latitudes with a layer of 3,000–4,000 ppmv, corresponding to local depletion of CO2. At equinoxes we found an increase of the CO mixing ratio above 50 km to 3,000–4,000 ppmv at high latitudes of both hemispheres explained by the downwelling flux of the Hadley circulation on Mars, which drags the CO enriched air. General circulation models tend to overestimate the intensity of this process, bringing too much CO. The observed minimum of CO in the high and mid-latitudes southern summer atmosphere amounts to 700–750 ppmv, agreeing with nadir measurements. During the global dust storm of MY34, when the H2O abundance peaks, we see less CO than during the calm MY35, suggesting an impact of HOx chemistry on the CO abundance.

Abstract:

<p>Previous studies of the reflectance spectra of Uranus and Neptune concentrated on individual, narrow wavelength regions, inferring solutions for the vertical structure of gases and aerosols that work well for the wavelength range fitted, but not elsewhere. This has made it difficult to interpret these works with respect to the underlying physical structures. Here we searched for a model of the vertical distribution of haze and methane abundance that fits the whole 0.3 – 2.5 µm range simultaneously, determining more robust solutions.</p><p>We reanalysed a set of observations from: HST/STIS (0.3-1.0 µm), IRTF/SpeX (0.8-2.5 µm), and Gemini/NIFS (1.4-1.8 µm).  Using a Minnaert limb-darkening model, we were able to partially disentangle cloud opacity and cloud absorbing effects, resulting in a model of the vertical distribution of aerosols and methane that is consistent with the observed reflectivity spectra of <strong>both </strong>planets and fits <strong>all</strong> wavelengths simultaneously. This model consists of three main components:  Aerosol-1) a deep aerosol layer with a base pressure > 5-7 bar, assumed to be a mixture of H<sub>2</sub>S ice and photochemical haze; Aerosol-2) a layer of photochemical haze/ice, coincident with a layer of high static stability at the methane condensation level at 1-2 bar; and Aerosol-3) an extended layer of photochemical haze, likely mostly of the same composition as the 1-2-bar layer, extending from this level up through to the stratosphere, the likely origin of the photochemical haze particles. For Neptune, we also need to add a thin layer of micron-sized methane ice particles (Aerosol-4) at ~0.2 bar to explain the enhanced reflection at longer methane-absorbing wavelengths. We suggest that methane condenses onto the haze particles at the base of the 1-2-bar Aerosol-2 layer and forms ice/haze particles that grow very quickly to large size and immediately ‘snow out’, as predicted by Carlson et al. (1988). We suggest that these particles re-evaporate at deeper, warmer levels to release their core haze particles to act as condensation nuclei for H<sub>2</sub>S ice formation in the Aerosol-1 layer (Fig. 1).</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gnp.48f3c02d128264034962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=90d68c53c584f58ce133a1d6871570f5&ct=x&pn=gnp.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 1. Summary of retrieved aerosol distributions for Uranus (left) and Neptune (right), compared with their assumed temperature/pressure profiles. On each plot are also shown the condensation lines for CH<sub>4</sub> (green) and H<sub>2</sub>S (pink), assuming 10-bar mole fractions of 4% for CH<sub>4</sub> and 0.001 for H<sub>2</sub>S, to move the condensation levels to the approximate levels of the Aerosol-1 and Aerosol-2 layers.</em></p><p>We find that the particles in the 1-2 bar Aerosol-2 layer have the greatest impact on the overall colour of Uranus and Neptune. These particles would appear mostly white in the visible, but become increasingly absorbing at blue/UV and near-IR wavelengths. The Aerosol-2 layer on Uranus has approximately twice the opacity as the same layer on Neptune, giving Uranus a paler blue-green colour than the deeper blue of Neptune, and also explains why Uranus is darker than Neptune at UV wavelengths as can be seen in Figs. 2 and 3.</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gepj.ed5c2cad128264444962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=96a247f500df51ca67466219e93457a0&ct=x&pn=gepj.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 2. HST/STIS I/F spectra of Uranus and Neptune averaged along the central meridian of these planets. Also overplotted, for reference are the red, green, blue sensitivities of the human eye.</em></p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gnp.773ee2fd128264154962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=32b12171ce316bfabc5b93b07c661cd5&ct=x&pn=gnp.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 3. Modelled appearances of Uranus and Neptune. The right-hand column shows the simulated ‘observed’ appearance of Uranus and Neptune, reconstructed using the fitted Minnaert limb-darkening coefficients extracted from HST/STIS data. The spectra across the discs were convolved with the Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage (CIE)-standard red, green, and blue human cone spectral sensitivities to yield these apparent colours. The preceding columns show how our modelled appearance of these planets changes as we add different components to our radiative-transfer model.</em></p><p>For the deeper Aerosol-1 layer, a darkening of this layer (or possibly, but less likely, a clearing of the aerosols) provides a good match to the observed spectral properties of dark spots on Neptune, such as the Great Dark Spot observed on Neptune in 1989 by Voyager-2 (Fig. 4), and the more recent NDS-2018 spot, first observed by HST/WFC3 in 2018 (Fig. 5). Such spots are seen to have maximum visibility at ~500 nm, but are invisible at UV wavelengths and also at wavelengths longer than 700 nm. We will discuss the dynamical implications these conclusions have on the possible structure of such dark spots.</p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gepj.1d7b841f128264084962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=2f2926417e1e6cc2f97f2425807a2466&ct=x&pn=gepj.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 4. Representative Voyager-2 ISS images of Neptune, observed in August 1989 in the Clear, UV, Violet, Blue, Green and Orange filters, respectively, of the Narrow Angle Camera (NAC). The Great Dark Spot and Dark Spot 2 are visible, except in the UV channel. Also visible, except in the UV, is the darker belt at 45-55°S.</em></p><p><img src="https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/fileStorageProxy.php?f=gnp.09ee0f2f128261384962561/sdaolpUECMynit/2202CSPE&app=m&a=0&c=284ac2a53c7b0a4dff00684677373dae&ct=x&pn=gnp.elif&d=1" alt=""></p><p><em>Figure 5. Observed and reconstructed HST/WFC3 images of Neptune made in 2018. Top: observations with the NDS-2018 feature at upper left and a dark lane at 60°S at lower right. Middle: images reconstructed from our fits to the HST/STIS data, but also including a hole in the deep Aerosol-1 layer (p>5-7 bar) near the central meridian at 15°N, and a clearing at 60°S. Bottom: a second set of images reconstructed from our fits, but where the Aerosol-1 layer is instead darkened near the central meridian at 15°N and at all longitudes at 60°S.</em></p><p>Finally, the homogenous haze layer near the 1-2 bar methane condensation level can be explained by a layer of high static stability caused by the release of latent heat and by the significant decrease with height of the mean atmospheric molecular weight caused by methane condensation, which has a large deep abundance (~4%) and is much heavier than the surrounding H<sub>2</sub>-He air. Methane condensation would quickly form very large ice particles at the base of this haze layer that immediately ‘snow out’, explaining why a layer of methane ice is not found at its condensation level. Limited mixing from the potential static stability barrier at 1-2 bar could permit external CO entering Neptune’s atmosphere to be trapped in the upper troposphere, removing the need for extreme internal oxygen enrichment in order to explain the wide wings in Neptune’s sub-mm CO lines.</p>

Abstract:

<p>The history of in-situ Venus exploration has been limited to a few opportunities with different probes that were capable to operate, for short periods of time, under the extreme atmospheric conditions of the planet. Among these missions, the VeGa balloons deployed in the Venus atmosphere in the mid-eighties of previous century revealed the advantages of using this concept for investigating the atmosphere of Venus. In this regard, the recent studies for the 2023-2030 Planetary Decadal Survey [1-3] have pointed the potential of using balloon platforms for planetary science exploration, considering that the different technologies required for these missions are currently mature enough to develop long-lived and possibly even altitude-varying probes or more specifically, aerobots.<br>In this work, we present an early concept of a lightweight radiometer for future balloon missions to Venus. Its primary scientific objectives are: i) to measure solar and ii)thermal infrared fluxes and their deposition in the cloud layer, iii) to characterize the variability of the cloud structure and its constituents, and iv) to detect and characterize atmospheric lightning events. Those investigations will allow us to understand the role of each objective in determining the atmospheric structure and the driving circulation of the planet.<br>Due to the limitations on resources for this kind of platforms, the key characteristics of the proposed instrument are its high scientific performance and the scarce resources needs: low accommodation volume, size, and mass; low power and data volume consumption. The radiometer combines different spectral bandpass channels (from UVA to IR) with particular orientations and field of view (FoV) selected to meet the scientific objectives. The instrument also incorporates a visible camera to provide context images for cloud investigations.<br>The Spanish National Institute of Aerospace Technology (INTA) has established a long-term strategy in the last decade with the program InMARS [4] that is devoted to developing high-performance, low-power, miniature sensors designed for in-situ planetary missions [5-10]. Within this program, we have developed an intensive selection, qualification, and screening activity in our particular technological roadmap called CERES (Compact Electronic Resources for the Exploration of Space), which allowed INTA to acquire critical technologies, components (including mixed ASICs [11-12]), materials and procedures for such instrumentation developments.</p><p><br>[1] K.H. Baines et al, 2020. White Pape. [2] Martha S. Gilmore et al, 2020. Venus Flagship Mission Decadal Study Final Report [3] Joseph O’Rourke, ADVENTS misión concept study. [4] I.Arruego et al. IPPW 2018. Boulder. Colorado. USA. [5] H. Guerrero et al. EGU 2010. Geophysical Research Abstracts Vol. 12, EGU2010-13330, 2010. [6] I. Arruego et al. DREAMS-SIS. ASR 2017. 60 (1): 103-120. [7] V. Apéstigue et al. Sensors.2022. [8] D. Rodionov et al. Sixth International Workshop on the Mars Atmosphere: Modelling and Observations. 2017. Granada. Spain. [9] D. Scaccabarozzi et al. IEEE MetroAeroSpace proccedings. 2019. Torino.Italy. [10] A. Russu et al. Proc. SPIE 11129. [11] S. Sordo-Ibáñez et al. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, vol. 63, pp. 2379-2389, 2016. [12] S. Sordo-Ibáñez et al. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 51, pp. 1-4, 2015</p>