Solar system

Abstract:

NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft continues to explore the Kuiper belt after its historic close flybys of the Pluto system in 2015 at ~33 astronomical units (AU) [1] and the cold classical Kuiper belt object (KBO) Arrokoth in 2019 at ~43 AU [2].  New Horizons is located at ~61.7 AU as of this writing in May 2025, and travels about 3 AU per year.  New Horizons has sufficient power, propellant, and communications capability to continue operations until the mid-to-late 2040s and, thus, should be able to collect data out to distances of ~120 AU or greater. In its extended mission, New Horizons’ main planetary science focus is studying Kuiper belt dwarf planets and small KBOs, and their environment.  We will provide an overview of results for the dwarf planets and smaller KBOs observed by New Horizons from a distance ([3-6]; also see Porter et al., 2025 abstract at this conference).  New Horizons can observe KBOs from much higher phase angles than possible from Earth, and some of the observed KBOs come as close as 0.1 AU to the spacecraft.  This allows for the study of shapes, poles, surface properties, and  searches for close satellites in some cases.  New Horizons also made high-phase, color observations of the ice giants Uranus and Neptune [7] in coordination with the Hubble Space Telescope and as an exoplanet observation analogue.  Further, the New Horizons Student Dust Counter continues to observe elevated dust fluxes at larger distances than expected, and the team is exploring possible explanations for why the dust flux has not yet started to decrease as predicted by previous models [8, 9].  We will also highlight some new products and findings related to Arrokoth, including a new shape model [10], images draped onto the shape model, and a study placing Arrokoth’s crater size-frequency distribution into the context of those on other small bodies [11].  Looking towards the future of New Horizons: We will provide a status update on the ground-based, Subaru Telescope search [12-14] for a future close flyby target and other KBOs that New Horizons could observe as point sources.  We will also discuss how future work would enhance the chances of finding a future flyby target for New Horizons, including the additional use of machine learning/artificial intelligence, supercomputing, and potential observations from the Vera Rubin Observatory (also see Kavelaars et al. 2025 abstract in this conference) or the Roman Space Telescope.References:[1]  Stern S. A. et al., 2015, The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New Horizons, Science 350, id.aad1815. doi:10.1126/science.aad1815[2]  Stern S. A. et al., 2019, Initial results from the New Horizons exploration of 2014 MU69, a small Kuiper Belt object, Science 364. doi:10.1126/science.aaw9771[3]  Verbiscer A. J. et al., 2024, The New Horizons Photometric Phase Angle Survey of Deep Outer Solar System Objects: From the Kuiper Belt to the Scattered Disk, 55th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 3040, 2531.[4]  Verbiscer A. J. et al., 2022, The Diverse Shapes of Dwarf Planet and Large KBO Phase Curves Observed from New Horizons, The Planetary Science Journal 3, 95. doi:10.3847/PSJ/ac63a6[5]  Verbiscer A. J. et al., 2019, Phase Curves from the Kuiper Belt: Photometric Properties of Distant Kuiper Belt Objects Observed by New Horizons, Astron. J. 158. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab3211[6]  Porter S. B. et al., 2016, The First High-phase Observations of a KBO: New Horizons Imaging of (15810) 1994 JR1 from the Kuiper Belt, ApJ Letters 828. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/828/2/L15[7]  Hasler S. N. et al., 2024, Observations of Uranus at High Phase Angle as Seen by New Horizons, The Planetary Science Journal 5, 267. doi:10.3847/PSJ/ad8cdb[8]  Corbett T. et al., 2025, Production, Transport, and Destruction of Dust in the Kuiper Belt: The Effects of Refractory and Volatile Grain Compositions, Astrophys J. 979, L50. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adab75[9]  Doner A. et al., 2024, New Horizons Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter Observes Higher than Expected Fluxes Approaching 60 AU, pp. arXiv:2401.01230.[10]  Porter S. B. et al., 2024, The Shape and Formation of Arrokoth, 55th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 3040, 2332.[11]  Knudsen I. E. et al., 2024, An Analysis of Impact Craters on Small Bodies Throughout the Solar System, The Trans-neptunian Solar System.[12]  Yoshida F. et al., 2024, A deep analysis for New Horizons' KBO search images, Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 76, 720-732. doi:10.1093/pasj/psae043[13]  Fraser W. C. et al., 2024, Candidate Distant Trans-Neptunian Objects Detected by the New Horizons Subaru TNO Survey, The Planetary Science Journal 5, 227. doi:10.3847/PSJ/ad6f9e[14]  Buie M. W. et al., 2024, The New Horizons Extended Mission Target: Arrokoth Search and Discovery, The Planetary Science Journal 5, 196. doi:10.3847/PSJ/ad676d

Abstract:

We present work to update current maps of the thermal properties of Enceladus using thermal observations from the Cassini Composite InfraRed Spectrometer (CIRS).  In 2010, the first maps of Enceladus’ thermal inertia were published that used what CIRS data was available at the time (Howett et al., 2010). These maps were resolved into some latitude zones, and overall conveyed lower thermal inertia and albedo at higher latitudes, and confirmed that like other cold, icy moons of Saturn its surface had low (< 50 MKS) thermal inertia.  Improvements to these maps using the totality of the CIRS Focal Plane 1 data (10-600 cm-1 / 16.7-1000 μm) from the mission with updated error estimates will yield better spatial resolution in addition to higher precision estimates of thermal inertia and albedo.   This will be particularly useful for improving models of surface temperature or estimating endogenic heat fluxes, like those at Enceladus’ south pole, associated with dissipation of heat from beneath.Acknowledgements: Thanks are given to the NASA Cassini Data Analysis program that funded this work (80NSSC20K0477 and 80NSSC24K0373). Reference:Howett, C.J.A., Spencer, J.R., Pearl, J. and Segura, M., 2010. Thermal inertia and bolometric Bond albedo values for Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus as derived from Cassini/CIRS measurements. Icarus, 206(2), pp.573-593.

Abstract:

IntroductionSaturn’s largest moon, Titan, has a dense atmosphere comprised mostly of nitrogen and methane. The photolysis and ionization of these major componentsleads to complex chemical reactions, which create substantial diversity among Titan’s minor atmospheric constituents. Remote sensing and molecular  pectroscopy historically have been a critical tool for detecting trace gases in Titan’s atmosphere and help corroborate predictions of Titan’s atmospheric composition from photochemical models. Following the Voyager and Cassini missions, which provided a wealth of spectroscopic studies of Titan’s  atmosphere, ground-based measurements have been useful for detecting elusive trace gases. The Echelon-Cross-Echelle Spectrometer (EXES) is a high-resolution (R ∼ 90, 000) mid-infrared spectrometer that was previously operated aboard NASA’s Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA)(1 ). EXES benefited from the high altitude flights during the SOFIA mission to make observations above the bulk of the atmosphere to avoid strong telluric absorption lines that inhibit ground based mid-IR spectrometers such as its sister instrument TEXES.Here we present EXES observations of Titan which were made in an attempt to detect two trace gases, triacetylene (C6H2) and dicyanoacetylene (C4N2). C6H2 is an important polyyne and is predicted to form readily from the addition of the ethynyl (C2H) radical with diacetylene (C4H2). It remains yet tobe detected, though, and the previous upper limit study was limited by the lower spectral resolution of Voyager’s IRIS (R ∼ 145)(2 ). Delpech et al. 1994 derived an upper-limit of 6 × 10−11 which would be detectable by EXES.Gas-phase C4N2 formation is primarily completed through C3N addition to HCN or, alternatively, CN addition to HC3N(3 ). The ice-phase C4N2, which is formed through solid-state photochemical reactions on the surface of HC3N ice grains, has been detected in spectra measured by Voyager’s IRIS and CIRSduring the Cassini mission (4, 5 ), yet C4N2 in the gas-phase remains elusive to spectroscopic detections. Again, previous studies of the gas-phase upper limits (3σ = 1.53 × 10−9) were performed using spectra collected by CIRS (R ∼ 1240) which has a resolving power significantly lower than EXES(6 ). The high-resolution of EXES will help improve on the upper limits of both of these species and allow for an updated comparison to photochemical model predictions of their vertical profiles in Titan’s atmosphere.Observations and ModelingMid-infrared observations of Titan were made in June of 2021, using EXES. These observations aim to detect the ν11 out-of-plane bending mode of C6H2 at 621 cm−1 and the perpendicular ν9 stretch of the gasphase C4N2 at 472 cm−1. Figure 1 shows a small portion of the EXES spectrum measured at the 621 cm−1 spectral setting. In this region there are strong emission features from diacetylene (C4H2) and propyne (C3H4) which must be fit before analyzing the C6H2 upper limits. Highlighted in the blue box is the region where the ν11 vibrational mode for C6H2 should be present.To model the collected spectra, we use the arch-NEMESIS radiative transfer package which is a new Python implementation of the NEMESIS radiative transfer code (7, 8 ). The radiative transfer modeling of the measured spectra occurs in two steps. The initial step is to retrieve the atmospheric profiles of the aerosols and known gases using the archNEMESIS optimal estimation algorithm. For the 621 cm−1 spectral setting, the vertical profiles of C4H2, C3H4, and aerosol continuum are retrieved, however, at the 472 cm−1 region, there are no emission features to fit and just the continuum level is retrieved by adjusting the aerosol profile. For both spectral regions, we use a temperature profile and initial gas profiles defined in Vuitton et al. 2019 photochemical model (3 ). The quality of each retrieval is determined by a goodnessof-fit metric (χ2) which compares the residual of the modeled spectrum to the noise of the measurement. Following the retrieval, we derive the upper limits by building forward models of the spectral regions where the abundance of each target species is iteratively increased and a subsequent χ2 is determined. We then take the difference, Δχ2, between the retrieved and updated forward model χ2 to find where the abundance causes significant deviation from the retrieved spectrum. Step-profiles, which have a cutoff altitude and constant abundance above this cutoff, were used to determine the upper-limits for each species. This method has been applied for many different upper limits studies of gases predicted in Titan’s atmosphere (9, 10 ).ResultsBased on these observations, C6H2 and gas-phase C4N2 remain undetected and therefore, we derive the upper limits to their atmospheric abundance. We improve upon the upper limits of C6H2 and C4N2 by an order of magnitude for both species. Figure 2 shows Δχ2 increase sharply with increased abundance for both C6H2 and C4N2. For C6H2 the 3σ upper limit (Δχ2 = 9) is on the order of 10−11 and for C4N2, 10−10. These new upper limits improve on the previously derived upper limits by an order of magnitude for each target species. More work is still being done to precisely determine the upper limits and compare these values to the current photochemical model predictions of their abundance. The values of the 1σ, 2σ, and 3σ upper limits for each species will be reported in the presentation. The upper limits derived improved upon the previous upper limits by an order of magnitude and we are currently working on comparing these upper limits to photochemical models of Titan’s atmospheric composition to build a better understanding of the chemical pathways in Titan’s atmosphere which will also be discussed in the presentation. AcknowledgmentsThe material is based upon work supported by NASA under award number 80GSFC24M0006.References1. Richter et al., 20182. Delpech et al., 19943. Vuitton et al., 20194. Samuelson et al, 19975. Anderson et al, 20166. Jolly et al., 20157. Alday et al, 20258. Irwin et al., 20089. Nixon et al., 201010. Teanby et al., 2013

Abstract:

This talk will cover the state of the art in whole-planet subNeptune modelling, and needs for the future.  Inferences about the composition of the deep envelope can be made on the basis of the way chemical transformations in the deep envelope may be evidenced in the observable atmosphere, such as has been attempted, for example, regarding the presence or absence of NH3 in the observable atmospheres of subNeptunes.  Such inferences require an understanding not only of deep envelope chemistry, but also of vertical mixing processes. The mixing process engages a number of poorly understood phenomena, such as mixing rates through stably stratified (nonconvective) internal radiative layers.  The occurrence of such radiative layers can be induced by compositional suppression of convection (e.g. due to high molecular weight H2O in an H2-rich atmosphere). We will review our modelling studies regarding this phenomenon.  Typically, the envelope-silicate interface is hot enough that the interface takes the form of a magma ocean, so compositional interchange with the magma ocean becomes crucial. This exchange includes rock vapours as well as lower molecular weight volatiles.  Our work on magma ocean exchanges will be reviewed. We highlight the importance of mineral physics experiments and molecular dynamics to provide crucially needed (and largely absent) thermodynamic parameters, particularly at high pressure.  At sufficiently high temperatures, silicate itself can become supercritical so that the distinction between silicate melt and silicate vapour disappears and the silicate substance becomes completely miscible with the lower molecular weight envelope.  Modeling and experiment regarding this novel and largely unexplored regime is particularly needed.

Abstract:

Mars has an axial tilt of 25.2°, comparable to that on Earth of 23.4°. This gives rise to very similar seasons, and even leads to our definition of Martian time, aligning the solar longitudes (Ls) such that Ls 0° and 180° occur at the equinoxes. In the northern hemisphere, between the equinoxes, the north polar region experiences polar days without darkness in spring and summer, and days of total darkness in the fall and winter. The dark polar winters give rise to a polar vortex that encircles the polar region and encircles an atmosphere of very cold and dry air bound within (1-3).The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) mid-infrared channel (MIR) on the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO; 4) operates in solar occultation mode in which the Sun is used as a light source when the atmosphere lies between the Sun and TGO. The tangent point locations of ACS MIR observation necessarily lie on the solar terminator on Mars. At the poles when either polar night or polar day are experienced, there is no terminator, and solar occultations are restricted to outside such a region. The latitudinal distribution of ACS MIR solar occultations during the north polar fall and winter over four Mars years (MYs) is shown in Fig. 1. The furthest northern extent of observations occurs at the equinoxes, and falling northern boundary is seen between, as the north pole points further away from the Sun (similarly in the south, where it is polar day).While direct observations of the north polar vortex are forbidden with solar occultations, the polar vortex is not perfectly circular (1-3) and occasionally, descends into the illuminated region where we are making observations. The characteristic signs that we are sampling the polar vortex are a sudden drop in temperature below 20 km, the almost complete reduction in water vapour volume mixing ratio (VMR) and an enhancement in ozone VMR, the latter of which is extremely rare (5).To measure the extent of the polar vortex, we use temperature measurements from the Mars Climate Sounder (MCS; 6, 7) on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). We define the polar vortex as the average temperature over 10-20 km being within a boundary of 170 K (30). We introduce a novel technique to determine this boundary during a 1° Ls period using an alpha hull. We show that we can accurately measure the area of the polar vortex and achieve similar results to (3). The impact of the southern summer and dust activity is clearly visible in the time series of the northern polar vortex extent, leading to maxima occurring at the equinoxes, and shrinking toward perihelion. The impact of global dust storms and the late season dust storms are also pronounced.We will show the vertical structure of water vapour and ozone VMRs inside and outside the north polar vortex, the results of a search for polar vortex temperatures from the near-infrared channel (NIR) of ACS (along the dark blue dots in Fig. 1), and show whether these results agree with the polar vortex extent measurements using MCS.       Figure 1: The latitudes of ACS MIR solar occultation as a function of time (solar longitude Ls) during northern fall (Ls 180-270°) and winter (Ls 270-360°). Data from Mars years (MYs) 34-37 are indicated with colours. The region of interest in searching for polar vortex excursions is highlighted in blue.References:(1) Streeter, P. M. et al. J. Geophys. Res. 126, e2020JE006774 (2021).(2) Streeter, P. M., Lewis, S. R., Patel, M. R., Holmes, J. A., & Rajendran, K. Icarus 409, 115864 (2024).(3) Alsaeed, N.R., Hayne, P. O. & Concepcion, V. J. Geophys. Res. 129, e2024JE008397 (2024).(4) Korablev, O. et al. Space Sci. Rev. 214, 7 (2018).(5) Olsen, K. S., et al. J. Geophys. Res. 127, e2022JE007213 (2022).(6) Kleinböhl, A., et al. J. Geophys. Res., 114, E10006 (2009).(7) Kleinböhl, A., Friedson, A. J., & Schofield, J. T. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer. 187, 511-522 (2017).